PFAS remediation technologies

This article, the second in our series, explores the current landscape of PFAS remediation technologies, from advanced analytical methods to the next generation of destruction pathways.

Measuring PFAS in water

There is no single test that captures the thousands of PFAS species that exist. Effective strategies combine targeted and total measurements. 

This can include targeted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/​mass spectrometry (LC‑MS/MS), which is the standard method for quantifying individual PFAS, with capability to detect low ng/​L. However, this inevitably misses any unknown PFAS not previously identified. 

A total oxidisable precursors assay converts oxidisable PFAS precursors to measurable compounds, offering insight into currently unknown PFAS. UK and EU labs have worked together to attempt to harmonise this method, though standardisation and interpretation challenges still remain. 

Total/​extractable organic fluorine content via combustion ion chromatography estimates overall organo-fluorine content as an estimate of total PFAS but cannot distinguish PFAS from other fluorinated compounds. It is often paired with targeted LC‑MS/MS to reveal any unknowns. 

Separation and capture: extracting PFAS from water

For drinking water and moderately contaminated wastewaters, mature separation technologies remain the most practical frontline option for PFAS removal. These approaches reliably extract PFAS from water, although they do not destroy them, which means they generate concentrated waste streams that require careful downstream management. Within this landscape, membrane filtration and reverse osmosis are well-established, often delivering more than 90% removal when system design and pre-treatment are correctly optimised to prevent fouling and support consistent performance, particularly for small-chain PFAS. 

Granular activated carbon (GAC) is similarly widespread and performs strongly for long-chain PFAS, yet its effectiveness declines much faster with short-chain compounds, leading to more frequent media changes or reactivation cycles and an associated increase in PFAS-rich waste. 

To address these limitations, other separation routes are increasingly being adopted. Ion exchange offers higher affinity and faster kinetics than GAC, making it a preferred choice when targeting smaller-chain PFAS or when selective removal is required, although it still produces highly concentrated waste that must be handled responsibly. 

Alongside these mature technologies, new approaches are also being developed. Innovation in novel adsorption materials, such as functionalised polymers, tailored carbons and hybrid nano-adsorbents, is accelerating. These materials are designed to improve capacity, extend operational lifespan and enhance selectivity for short-chain PFAS. 

Foam fractionation is also emerging as a promising complementary technology. By leveraging the surface-active behaviour of PFAS to concentrate contaminants into a foam layer, it can be highly effective in certain moderate to high-strength wastewaters. However, challenges remain around the reliable capture of short-chain PFAS and the scalability of systems to support high flow rates. 

Together, these technologies illustrate the strengths and limitations of current PFAS treatment approaches and highlight the need for integrated solutions that balance removal efficiency, operational cost and robust waste management. 

Destruction of PFAS in water

Destroying PFAS is uniquely challenging because the carbon – fluorine bond is one of the strongest in chemistry, which means breaking it requires high-energy or highly specialised oxidative and reductive processes. While no single destruction technology is yet proven at full commercial scale, several approaches are advancing from laboratory research into pilot and early deployment. 

High temperature incineration remains the most established option and operates at temperatures above 850 °C, but it is energy intensive, and concerns persist around incomplete breakdown, by-product formation and the limited understanding of PFAS decomposition pathways. 

There are also emerging technologies that could offer alternative approaches. Plasma treatment uses electrically energised plasma fields to break down PFAS in liquid concentrates. It shows strong potential for near-complete destruction without significant residual waste, although energy demand, system complexity and scalability continue to limit wider adoption. 

Electrochemical oxidation has shown strong performance for concentrated solutions and regeneration brines by using electrically driven oxidation reactions, although electrode fouling, energy use and treatment rates remain important challenges. 

Alongside these methods, several other technologies are emerging. Photochemical systems use UV light with catalysts or reactive additives to degrade PFAS, and while they can be effective for some compounds, they often struggle with short-chain molecules and depend on chemical inputs that complicate full-scale operation. 

Hydrothermal alkaline treatment applies high temperature, pressure and alkaline conditions to chemically degrade PFAS and has demonstrated promising degradation rates across different PFAS classes, although it is currently limited to small-scale applications and more concentrated waste streams. 

Sonolysis, which relies on high-intensity ultrasound to generate collapsing microbubbles that create localised high temperatures and pressures, can work well for dilute wastewaters but remains energy intensive and difficult to scale. 

Early-stage technologies

Other routes are still in early development but offer potential for future commercialisation. Mechanochemical degradation uses mechanical force and grinding in the presence of chemical reagents to break PFAS in solid wastes or contaminated soils, but deployment is currently limited. 

Bio-based approaches are at an earlier stage and focus on engineering enzymes capable of breaking down PFAS. Supercritical water oxidation also shows promise, operating at extreme temperature and pressure where water becomes highly reactive and enables rapid PFAS destruction, although high capital cost, system complexity and scale-up considerations currently restrict adoption. 

Together, these technologies highlight a rapidly evolving field that aims to move beyond separation alone towards true PFAS destruction at scale. 

Why PFAS removal requires integrated solutions

PFAS removal is not a single technology challenge. It demands integrated systems that can measure, extract and destroy PFAS with complete verification of removal. 

In the UK and across Europe, success hinges on precision analytics to quantify both known and unknown PFAS, effective separation and capture for drinking water and industrial sources, complete destruction of PFAS in concentrated waste streams and robust verification through advanced analytical methods, all aligned with rapidly evolving regulatory frameworks. 

Ultimately, those successful will not only combine these capabilities, but match the right technology to the right waste stream and prove complete PFAS destruction with confidence. 

In Part 3, we will explore the innovators racing to commercialise these breakthroughs.